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[...] "Even the time-honored tactic of hanging the movement'€™s
leaders began to backfire. An execution would exert an intimidating
effect on a crowd of 100, but a crowds now ranged up to 50,000
supporters of the condemned man, and the executions just made them
want to fight. The growth of British cities, and the growth of
social polarization within them -€” that is, two quantitative
changes -€” had begun to produce qualitatively new outbreaks of
struggle.<br>
<br>
The ruling class needed new institutions to get this under control.
One of them was the London police, founded in 1829, just 10 years
after Peterloo. <b>The new police force was designed specifically
to inflict nonlethal violence upon crowds to break them up while
deliberately trying to avoid creating martyrs. </b><b>Now, any
force that'€™s organized to deliver violence on a routine basis is
going to kill some people. But for every police murder, there are
hundreds or thousands of acts of police violence that are
nonlethal - €”calculated and calibrated to produce intimidation
while avoiding an angry collective response.</b><b><br>
</b><b>
</b><br>
When the London police were not concentrated into squads for crowd
control, they were dispersed out into the city to police the daily
life of the poor and working class. That sums up the distinctive
dual function of modern police: There is the dispersed form of
surveillance and intimidation that'€™s done the name of fighting
crime; and then there'€™s the concentrated form of activity to take
on strikes, riots, and major demonstrations." [...]<br>
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-------- Original Message --------
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<th align="RIGHT" nowrap="nowrap" valign="BASELINE">Subject:
</th>
<td>[ufpj-activist] RESOURCE: Origins of the police</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="RIGHT" nowrap="nowrap" valign="BASELINE">Date: </th>
<td>Mon, 8 Dec 2014 08:21:50 +0000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="RIGHT" nowrap="nowrap" valign="BASELINE">From: </th>
<td>Michael Eisenscher
<a class="moz-txt-link-rfc2396E" href="mailto:m_eisenscher@uslaboragainstwar.org"><m_eisenscher@uslaboragainstwar.org></a></td>
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<th align="RIGHT" nowrap="nowrap" valign="BASELINE">Reply-To:
</th>
<td>Michael Eisenscher
<a class="moz-txt-link-rfc2396E" href="mailto:m_eisenscher@uslaboragainstwar.org"><m_eisenscher@uslaboragainstwar.org></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="RIGHT" nowrap="nowrap" valign="BASELINE">To: </th>
<td>UFPJ Activist List
<a class="moz-txt-link-rfc2396E" href="mailto:ufpj-activist@lists.mayfirst.org"><ufpj-activist@lists.mayfirst.org></a></td>
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of the police</a></h1>
<p><br>
</p>
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by<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></font><span
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moz-do-not-send="true" title="View all posts by David
Whitehouse" class="url fn n" style="FONT-SIZE: 12px;
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href="http://worxintheory.wordpress.com/author/dwhouse57/"
rel="author">David Whitehouse</a></span></h1>
<div class="single-description entry-meta" style="FONT-SIZE:
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title="10:51 pm" style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; TEXT-DECORATION:
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href="http://worxintheory.wordpress.com/2014/12/07/origins-of-the-police/"
rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date"
datetime="2014-12-07T22:51:04+00:00" pubdate="">December
7, 2014</time></a></div>
</div>
<div class="entry-content" style="BORDER-LEFT-WIDTH: 0px;
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<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
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MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">When Black
residents of Ferguson, Mo. decided to stand up and fight, they
inspired action from others around the country, and they
provoked a national debate about policing. I contribute this
article to the debate in hopes of advancing the struggle. It
is an edited text of a talk I gave in Chicago in late June
2012 at the annual Socialism conference. Audio of the talk is
available at<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a
moz-do-not-send="true" style="FONT-SIZE: 12px;
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0.3s ease; -webkit-transition: all 0.3s ease"
href="http://worxintheory.wordpress.com/2014/12/07/origins-of-the-police/wearemany.org">wearemany.org</a>,
but the text here corrects some mistakes I made back then.
I'€™m also preparing a more-developed and better-documented
article to appear in the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a
moz-do-not-send="true" style="FONT-SIZE: 12px;
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0.3s ease; -webkit-transition: all 0.3s ease"
href="http://isreview.org/"><em style="FONT-SIZE: 12px;
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italic; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">International
Socialist Review</em></a>.</p>
<div id="attachment_656" class="wp-caption alignleft"
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; MAX-WIDTH: 100%; BORDER-TOP: 0px;
FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; WIDTH: 460px;
VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FLOAT: left;
OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px;
OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px 1.5em 10px
0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; DISPLAY: inline; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><a moz-do-not-send="true"
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; TEXT-DECORATION: underline;
BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px;
VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; COLOR:
rgb(173,37,10); OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; transition: all 0.3s ease;
-webkit-transition: all 0.3s ease"
href="https://worxintheory.files.wordpress.com/2014/12/five_points_by_george_catlin_1827-bigger.jpg"><img
moz-do-not-send="true" class="wp-image-656 size-full"
style="MAX-WIDTH: 98%; BORDER-TOP: 0px; HEIGHT: auto;
BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; WIDTH: auto; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px;
MARGIN: 5px auto 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; DISPLAY: block"
alt="The Five Points district of lower Manhattan, painted
by George Catlin in 1827. New York’s first free Black
settlement, it became a mixed-race slum, home to Blacks
and Irish alike, and a focal point for the stormy
collective life of the new working class. Cops were
invented to gain control over neighborhoods and
populations like this."
src="https://worxintheory.files.wordpress.com/2014/12/five_points_by_george_catlin_1827-bigger.jpg"
border="0" height="332" width="450"></a>
<p class="wp-caption-text" style="FONT-SIZE: 11px; BORDER-TOP:
0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px;
VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH:
0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; TEXT-ALIGN: center; PADDING-TOP:
0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 30px; MARGIN: 5px
0px 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 30px">The Five Points
district of lower Manhattan, painted by George Catlin in
1827. New York'€™s first free Black settlement, Five Points
was also a destination for Irish immigrants and a focal
point for the stormy collective life of the new working
class. Cops were invented to gain control over neighborhoods
and populations like this.</p>
</div>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">In England and
the United States, the police were invented within the space
of just a few decades - roughly from 1825 to 1855.</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The new
institution was not a response to an increase in crime, and it
really didn'€™t lead to new methods for dealing with crime.
The most common way for authorities to solve a crime - before
and since the invention of police -€” has been for someone to
tell them who did it.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Besides, crime
has to do with the acts of individuals, and the ruling elites
who invented the police were responding to challenges posed by
collective action. To put it in a nutshell: The authorities
created the police in response to large, defiant crowds.
That'€™s</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 30px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">-€” strikes in
England,<br>
-€” riots in the Northern US,<br>
-€” and the threat of slave insurrections in the South.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">So the police
are a response to crowds, not to crime.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">I will be
focusing a lot on who these crowds were, how they became such
a challenge. We'€™ll see that one difficulty for the rulers,
besides the growth of social polarization in the cities, was
the breakdown of old methods of personal supervision of the
working population. In these decades, the state stepped in to
fill the social breach.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">We'€™ll see
that, in the North, the invention of the police was just one
part of a state effort to manage and shape the workforce on a
day-to-day basis. Governments also expanded their systems of
poor relief in order to regulate the labor market, and they
developed the system of public education to regulate
workers'€™ minds. I will connect those points to police work
later on, but mostly I'€™ll be focusing on how the police
developed in London, New York, Charleston (South Carolina),
and Philadelphia.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">* * * * *</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">To get a sense of
what'€™s special about modern police, it will help to talk
about the situation when capitalism was just beginning.<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></strong>Specifically,
let'€™s consider the market towns of the late medieval period,
about 1,000 years ago.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The dominant
class of the time wasn'€™t in the towns. The feudal
landholders were based in the countryside. They didn'€™t have
cops. They could pull together armed forces to terrorize the
serfs -€” who were semi-slaves -€” or they could fight against
other nobles. But these forces were not professional or
full-time.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The population
of the towns was mostly serfs who had bought their freedom, or
simply escaped from their masters. They were known as
bourgeois, which means town-dweller. The bourgeoisie pioneered
economic relations that later became known as capitalism.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">For the purposes
of our discussion, let'€™s say that a capitalist is somebody
who uses money to make more money. At the beginning, the
dominant capitalists were merchants. A merchant takes money to
buy goods in order to sell them for more money. There are also
capitalists who deal only with money-€”bankers - €”who lend
out a certain amount in order to get more back.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">You could also
be a craftsman who buys materials and makes something like
shoes in order to sell them for more money. In the guild
system, a master craftsman would work alongside and supervise
journeymen and apprentices. The masters were profiting from
their work, so there was exploitation going on, but the
journeymen and apprentices had reasonable hopes of becoming
masters themselves eventually. So class relations in the towns
were quite fluid, especially in comparison to the relation
between noble and serf. Besides, the guilds operated in ways
that put some limits on exploitation, so it was the merchants
who really accumulated capital at that time.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">In France, in
the 11th and 12th centuries, these towns became known as
communes. They incorporated into communes under various
conditions, sometimes with the permission of a feudal lord,
but in general they were seen as self-governing entities or
even city-states.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">But they
didn'€™t have cops. They had their own courts -€” and small
armed forces made up of the townsmen themselves. These forces
generally had nothing to do with bringing people up on
charges. If you got robbed or assaulted, or were cheated in a
business deal, then you, the citizen, would press the charges.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">One example of
this do-it-yourself justice, a method that lasted for
centuries, was known as the hue and cry. If you were in a
marketplace and you saw somebody stealing, you were supposed
to yell and scream, saying '€œStop, thief!'€ and chase after
the thief. The rest of the deal was that anybody who saw you
do this was supposed to add to the hue and cry and also run
after the thief.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><em
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
FONT-STYLE: italic; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The towns
didn'€™t need cops because they had a high degree of social
equality</em>, which gave people a sense of mutual
obligation. Over the years, class conflicts did intensify
within the towns, but even so, the towns held together -€”
through a common antagonism to the power of the nobles and
through continued bonds of mutual obligation.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">For hundreds of
years, the French carried an idealized memory of these early
commune towns -€” as self-governing communities of equals. So
it'€™s no surprise that in 1871, when workers took over Paris,
they named it the Commune. But that'€™s jumping a little
farther forward than we should just yet.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">* * * * *</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Capitalism
underwent major changes as it grew up inside feudal society.<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></strong>First of
all, the size of capital holdings grew. Remember, that'€™s the
point - €”to make smaller piles of money into bigger piles of
money. The size of holdings began to grow astronomically
during the conquest of the Americas, as gold and silver were
looted from the New World and Africans were kidnapped to work
on plantations.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">More and more
things were produced for sale on the market. The losers in
market competition began to lose their independence as
producers and had to take wage jobs. But in places like
England, the biggest force driving people to look for wage
work was the state-endorsed movement to drive peasants off the
land.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The towns grew
as peasants became refugees from the countryside, while
inequality grew within the cities. The capitalist bourgeoisie
became a social layer that was more distinct from workers than
it used to be. The market was having a corrosive effect on
solidarity of craft guilds -€” something I'€™ll take up in
more detail when I talk about New York. Workshops got bigger
than ever, as a single English boss would be in command of
maybe dozens of workers. I'€™m talking about the mid-1700s
here, the period right before real factory industrialization
began.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">There still
weren'€™t cops, but the richer classes began to resort to more
and more violence to suppress the poor population. Sometimes
the army was ordered to shoot into rebellious crowds, and
sometimes the constables would arrest the leaders and hang
them. So class struggle was beginning to heat up, but things
really began to change when the Industrial Revolution took off
in England.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">* * * * *</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">At the same time,
the French were going through a political and social
revolution of their own, beginning in 1789.<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></strong>The
response of the British ruling class was to panic over the
possibility that English workers would follow the French lead.
They outlawed trade unions and meetings of more than 50
people.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Nevertheless,
English workers put together bigger and bigger demonstrations
and strikes from about 1792 to 1820. The ruling class response
was to send in the army. But there are really only two things
the army could do, and they'€™re both bad. They could refuse
to shoot, and the crowd would get away with whatever it came
to do. Or they could shoot into the crowd and produce
working-class martyrs.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">This is exactly
what happened in Manchester in 1819. Soldiers were sent
charging into a crowd of 80,000, injuring hundreds of people
and killing 11. Instead of subduing the crowd, this action,
known as the Peterloo Massacre, provoked a wave of strikes and
protests.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Even the
time-honored tactic of hanging the movement'€™s leaders began
to backfire. An execution would exert an intimidating effect
on a crowd of 100, but a crowds now ranged up to 50,000
supporters of the condemned man, and the executions just made
them want to fight. The growth of British cities, and the
growth of social polarization within them -€” that is, two
quantitative changes -€” had begun to produce qualitatively
new outbreaks of struggle.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The ruling class
needed new institutions to get this under control. One of them
was the London police, founded in 1829, just 10 years after
Peterloo. The new police force was designed specifically to
inflict nonlethal violence upon crowds to break them up while
deliberately trying to avoid creating martyrs. Now, any force
that'€™s organized to deliver violence on a routine basis is
going to kill some people. But for every police murder, there
are hundreds or thousands of acts of police violence that are
nonlethal - €”calculated and calibrated to produce
intimidation while avoiding an angry collective response.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">When the London
police were not concentrated into squads for crowd control,
they were dispersed out into the city to police the daily life
of the poor and working class. That sums up the distinctive
dual function of modern police: There is the dispersed form of
surveillance and intimidation that'€™s done the name of
fighting crime; and then there'€™s the concentrated form of
activity to take on strikes, riots, and major demonstrations.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">That'€™s what
they were invented for -€” to deal with crowds -€” but what we<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em style="FONT-SIZE:
12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT:
0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px;
OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-STYLE: italic;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">see</em><span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>most of the time is
the presence of the cop on the beat. Before I talk about the
evolution of police in New York, I want to explore the
connection between these two modes of police work.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">*****</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">I'€™ll begin with
the more general topic of class struggle over the use of
outdoor space.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></strong>This
is a very consequential issue for workers and the poor. The
outdoors is important to workers</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 30px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">- for work<br>
-€” for leisure and entertainment<br>
-€” for living space, if you don'€™t have a home<br>
-€ and for politics.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">First, about
work. While successful merchants could control indoor spaces,
those without so many means had to set themselves up as
vendors on the street. The established merchants saw them as
competitors and got the police to remove them.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Street vendors
are also effective purveyors of stolen goods because they'€™re
mobile and anonymous. It wasn'€™t just pickpockets and
burglars who made use of street vendors this way. The servants
and slaves of the middle class also stole from their masters
and passed the goods on to the local vendors. (By the way, New
York City had slavery until 1827.) The leakage of wealth out
of the city'€™s comfortable homes is another reason that the
middle class demanded action against street vendors.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The street was
also simply where workers would spend their free time -
€”because their homes were<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
FONT-STYLE: italic; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">not<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></em>comfortable.
The street was a place where they could get friendship and
free entertainment, and, depending on the place and time, they
might engage in dissident religion or politics. British
Marxist historian EP Thompson summed all this up when he wrote
that 19th century English police were</p>
<blockquote style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px;
FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN:
baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">impartial,
attempting to sweep off the streets with an equable hand
street traders, beggars, prostitutes, street-entertainers,
pickets, children playing football and freethinking and
socialist speakers alike. The pretext very often was that a
complaint of interruption of trade had been received from a
shopkeeper.</p>
</blockquote>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">On both sides of
the Atlantic, most arrests were related to victimless crimes,
or crimes against the public order. Another Marxist historian
Sidney Harring noted: "€œThe criminologist'€™s definition of
'€˜public order crimes'€™ comes perilously close to the
historian'€™s description of '€˜working-class leisure-time
activity."</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Outdoor life was
-€” and is -€” especially important to working-class politics.
Established politicians and corporate managers can meet
indoors and make decisions that have big consequences because
these people are in command of bureaucracies and workforces.
But when working people meet and make decisions about how to
change things, it usually doesn'€™t count for much unless they
can gather some supporters out on the street, whether it'€™s
for a strike or a demonstration. The street is the proving
ground for much of working-class politics, and the ruling
class is fully aware of that. That'€™s why they put the police
on the street as a counter-force whenever the working class
shows its strength.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Now we can look
at the connections between the two major forms of police
activity -€” routine patrols and crowd control. The day-to-day
life of patrolling gets police accustomed to using violence
and the threat of violence. This gets them ready to pull off
the large-scale acts of repression that are necessary when
workers and the oppressed rise up in larger groups. It'€™s not
just a question of getting practice with weapons and tactics.
Routine patrol work is crucial to creating a mindset among
police that their violence is for the greater good.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The day-to-day
work also allows commanders to discover which cops are most
comfortable inflicting pain -€” and then to assign them to the
front lines when it comes to a crackdown. At the same time,
the '€œgood cop'€ you may meet on the beat provides crucial
public-relations cover for the brutal work that needs to be
done by the '€œbad cops.'€ Routine work can also become
useful in periods of political upheaval because the police
have already spent time in the neighborhoods trying to
identify the leaders and the radicals.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">* * * * *</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Now we can jump
back into the historical narrative and talk about New York
City.</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">I'€™ll begin
with a couple of points about the traditions of crowds before
the revolution. During the colonial period, people got rowdy
sometimes, but it was often formalized in ways that the
colonial elite would approve or at least tolerate. There were
various celebrations that fell in the category of
'€œmisrule,'€ in which social positions were reversed and the
lower orders could pretend that they were on the top. This was
a way for the subordinate classes blow off steam by satirizing
their masters -€” a way that acknowledged the right of the
elite to be in charge on every other day of the year. This
tradition of symbolic misrule was especially prominent around
Christmas and New Year'€™s. Even slaves would be allowed to
participate.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">There was also a
yearly celebration of Pope Day, in which members of the
Protestant majority would parade around with effigies,
including one of the Pope -€” until they burned them all at
the end. A little sectarian provocation, '€œall in good
fun,'€ all approved by the city fathers. At that point, Pope
Day didn'€™t usually lead to violence against actual Catholics
because there were only a few hundred in New York and not a
single Catholic church before the revolution.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">These crowd
traditions were loud and even riotous, but they tended to
reinforce the connection between the lower orders and the
elite, not to break that connection.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The lower orders
were also bound to the elite by constant personal supervision.
This applied to slaves and house servants, of course, but
apprentice and journeyman craftsman also lived in the same
house with the master. So there were not a lot of these
subordinate people roaming around the streets at all hours. In
fact, there was a colonial ordinance for a while that said
that working people could be on the streets only when they
were going to and from work.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">This situation
left sailors and day laborers as the city'€™s rowdiest
unsupervised elements. But sailors spent most of their time
near the waterfront, and the laborers -€” that is, the class
of regular wage workers -€” were not yet a large group.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Under these
circumstances where most people were already supervised during
the day, there was no need for regular police force. There was
a night watch, which tried to guard against vandalism and
arrested any Black person who couldn'€™t prove that s/he was
free. The watch was not professional in any way. All of them
had day jobs and rotated into watch duty temporarily, so they
didn'€™t patrol regular beats -€” and everybody hated doing
it. The rich bought their way out of it by paying for
substitutes.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">During the day,
a small number of constables were on duty, but they didn'€™t
patrol. They were agents of the court who executed writs like
summonses and arrest warrants. They did not do detective work.
In the 1700s and well into the 1800s, the system relied almost
entirely on civilian informants who were promised a portion of
any fine that the offender might have to pay.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">* * * * *</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The revolutionary
period changed a few things about the role of crowds and the
relation between classes.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></strong>In
the 1760s, beginning with the agitation against the Stamp Act,
the elite of merchants and property-holders endorsed new forms
of popular mobilization. These were new loud demonstrations
and riots that borrowed from existing traditions, obviously in
the use of effigies. Instead of burning the Pope, they'€™d
burn the governor, or King George.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">I don'€™t have
time to go into detail about what they did, but it'€™s
important to note the class composition of these crowds.
Members of the elite might be there themselves, but the body
of these crowds was the skilled workers, collectively known as
the mechanics. That means that a master would be out in the
crowd with his journeymen and apprentices. People of higher
social rank tended to view the master craftsmen as their
lieutenants for mobilizing the rest of the mechanics.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">As the conflict
with Britain intensified, the mechanics became more
radicalized and organized themselves independently from the
colonial elite. There was friction between the mechanics and
the elite, but never a complete breach.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">And, naturally,
when the British were defeated and the elite set up their own
government, they had had enough of all this street agitation.
There continued to be rebellions and riots in the new
independent United States, but they were taking new shapes -
€”partly because economic development was breaking up the
unity of the mechanics themselves.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">* * * * *</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">I'€™ll turn now
to those developments that followed the revolution -€”
changes that produced a new working class out of a
conflicted hodgepodge of social elements.</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Let'€™s start
with the skilled workers. Even before the revolution, the
division between masters and journeyman had sharpened. To
understand this, we should look more closely at the lingering
influence of the guild system; formal guilds did not exist in
United States, but some of their traditions lived on among
skilled workers.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The old guilds
had essentially been cartels, unions of workers who had a
monopoly on a particular skill that allowed them to manage the
market. They could set customary prices for their goods and
even decide beforehand how big the market was going to be.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The managed
market allowed for some customary stability of relations among
workers of the same trade. A master acquired an apprentice as
an indentured servant from his parents in return for a promise
of teaching him a skill and giving him room and board for
seven years. Apprentices graduated to become journeyman, but
often continued to work for the same master as long as there
is no slot for them to become masters themselves. Journeyman
received customary wages with long-term contracts. This meant
that pay would keep coming in despite seasonal variations in
the amount of work. Even without the formal structure of
guilds, much of this customary set of relations was still in
place in the pre-revolutionary period.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">From about 1750
to 1850, however, this corporative structure within the
skilled trades was falling apart because the external relation
-€” the tradesmen'€™s control of the market -€” was also
beginning to break down. Trade that came from other cities or
from overseas would undermine the masters'€™ ability to set
prices, so workshops were thrown into competition with each
other in a way that'€™s familiar today.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Competition
drove the masters to become more like entrepreneurs, seeking
out labor-saving innovation and treating their workers more
like disposable wage workers. Enterprises became larger and
more impersonal -€” more like factories, with dozens of
employees.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">In the first
decades of the 19th century, employees were not only losing
their long-term contracts, but they also were losing their
place to live in the masters'€™ households. The apprentices
found this to be a liberating experience, as young men got out
from under the authority of their parents<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em style="FONT-SIZE:
12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT:
0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px;
OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-STYLE: italic;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">and</em><span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>their masters. Free to
come and go as they pleased, they could meet young women and
create their own social life among their peers. Working women
were employed mostly in household service of various types
unless they were prostitutes.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Outdoor life
became transformed as these young people mingled with the
other parts of the population that comprised the developing
working class.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The mingling
wasn'€™t always peaceful. Irish Catholic immigration expanded
after 1800. By 1829, there were about 25,000 Catholics in the
city -€” 1 person out of 8. The Irish were segregated by
neighborhood, often living alongside Blacks, who themselves
were now about 5 percent of the population. In 1799,
Protestants burned an effigy of St. Patrick, and the Irish
fought back. These battles recurred over the next few years,
and it was clear to the Irish that the constables and the
watch were taking sides against them.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">So, before there
were even modern police forces, the lawmen were doing racial
profiling. The city'€™s elite took note of the Irish lack of
respect for the watch -€” their open combativeness -€” and
responded by expanding the watch and making its patrols more
targeted. This went along with increasing police attention to
Africans, who lived in the same areas and often had the same
attitude toward the authorities.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Underlying the
sectarian and racial divisions were economic competition,
since Irish workers were generally less skilled and drew lower
wages than craft workers. At the same time, masters were
trying to de-skill the jobs in the workshops. In this way,
Anglo apprentices became part of a real labor market as they
lost their long-term contracts. When this happened, they found
themselves just a rung above Irish immigrants on the wage
scale. Black workers, who performed domestic service or worked
as general laborers, were a further rung or two down the wage
scale from the Irish.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">At the same
time, the older unskilled part of the wage-working class,
centered around the docks and building construction, was
expanding because trade and construction both expanded after
the Revolution.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Overall,
population expanded rapidly. New York was 60,000 in 1800, but
it doubled in size by 1820. In 1830, New York had more than
200,000 people - €”and 312,000 by 1840.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">* * * * *</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">That'€™s a rough
profile of the New York'€™s new working class.</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">In these decades,
all sections of the class went into collective action on
their own behalf.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></strong>It'€™s
quite a complicated story, because of the number of actions
and the fragmentation of the class. But we could start with a
generalization that the most common form of struggle was also
the most elementary -€” the riot.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Now some
specifics. From 1801 to 1832, Black New Yorkers rioted four
times to prevent former slaves from being sent back to their
out-of-town masters. These efforts generally failed, the watch
responded violently, and the participants received unusually
harsh sentences. White abolitionists joined in the
condemnations of these riots. So these riots illustrate
popular self-activity despite elite disapproval -€” not to
mention racial disparity in the application of the law.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">There was also
white harassment of black churches and theaters, sometimes
rising to the level of riots. Poor immigrants were involved,
but sometimes rich whites and the constables themselves took
part. One anti-Black riot raged for three days in 1826,
damaging Black houses and churches -€” along with houses and
churches of white abolitionist ministers.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">But there
wasn'€™t just<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
FONT-STYLE: italic; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">conflict</em><span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>between Black and
white workers. In 1802, white and Black sailors struck for
higher wages. As with most strikes during this period, the
method was something that historian Eric Hobsbawm called
'€œcollective bargaining by riot.'€ In this case, strikers
disabled the ships that were hiring at the lower wages.
Dockworkers also united across racial and sectarian lines for
militant strikes in 1825 and 1828.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Job actions by
skilled workers like journeymen didn'€™t usually need to
resort to such physical coercion, because they possessed a
monopoly on the relevant skills. Journeymen nevertheless
became more militant in these years. Strikes in the skilled
trades happened in 3 waves, starting in 1809, 1822 and 1829.
Each wave was more militant and coercive than the previous '€”
as they targeted other skilled workers who broke solidarity.
In 1829, the journeymen led a movement to limit the workday to
10 hours and created the Workingmen'€™s Party. The party
collapsed in the same year, but it led to the founding the
General Trade Union in 1833.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">While workers
grew more conscious of themselves as a class, they also began
to engage in more and more '€œrun-of-the-mill'€ riots
wherever crowds gathered, in taverns or in theaters or in the
street. Such riots may have had no clear economic or political
objective, but they were still instances of collective
self-assertion by the working class -€” or by ethnic and
racial fractions of the class. In the opening decades of the
century, there was one of these riots about four times a year,
but in the period from 1825 to 1830, New Yorkers rioted at a
rate of once per month.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">One of these
riots in particular alarmed the elite. Known as the Christmas
riot of 1828, it actually happened at New Year'€™s. A noisy
crowd of about 4,000 young Anglo workers brought out their
drums and noisemakers and headed toward Broadway where the
rich lived. On the way, they busted up an African church and
beat the church members. The watch arrested several of the
rioters, but the crowd rescued them and sent the watch
running.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The crowd picked
up some more numbers and turned toward the commercial
district, where they busted up the stores. At the Battery,
they broke windows in some of the city'€™s richest homes. Then
they headed back up Broadway because they knew that the rich
were having their own celebration at the City Hotel. There the
crowd blocked the coaches from exiting.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">A large
contingent of the watch showed up, but the leaders of the
crowd called a five-minute truce. This allowed the watch to
think about the fight that they were about to get into. When
the five minutes were up, the watch stepped aside, and the
deafening crowd marched past them up Broadway.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">This spectacle
of working-class defiance took place in full view of the
families that ran New York City. Newspapers immediately began
calling for a major expansion of the watch, so the Christmas
Riot accelerated a set of incremental reforms that finally
lead to the creation the New York City Police Department in
1845.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The reforms of
1845 enlarged the police force, professionalized them, and
centralized them with a more military chain of command. The
watch was expanded to 24 hours, and policemen were forbidden
from taking a second job. The pay was increased, and police no
longer received a portion of the fines that were extracted
from offenders.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">This meant the
cops were no longer going out on patrol looking for how they
were going to make a living, a process that could lead to a
strange selection of prosecutions. Eliminating the fee system
gave commanders greater freedom to set policy and priorities
-€” and thus made the department more responsive to the
shifting needs of the economic elite.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">That'€™s how the
New York police got started.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">*****</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The story of
police in the South is a bit different, as you might expect.</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">One of the first
modern-type police forces came in Charleston, South Carolina,
in the years before New York force became fully professional.
The precursor of the Charleston'€™s police force was not a set
of urban watchmen but slave patrols that operated in the
countryside. As one historian put it, '€œthroughout all of the
[Southern] states [before the Civil War], roving armed police
patrols scoured the countryside day and night, intimidating,
terrorizing, and brutalizing slaves into submission and
meekness.'€</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">These were
generally volunteer forces of white citizens who provided
their own weapons. Over time, the system got adapted to city
life. Charleston'€™s population did not explode like New
York'€™s. In 1820, there were still less than 25,000 people
-€” but half of them were Black.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The only way
that the South could pull off any real industrialization was
to allow slaves to work in wage jobs in the cities. Some
slaves were owned directly by factory owners, especially in
the South'€™s most industrial city, Richmond. Most urban
slaves, however, were owned by white town-dwellers who used
them for personal service and '€œrented them out'€ to
wage-paying employers.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">At first, the
masters found the jobs for their slaves and took all of the
wages for themselves. But they quickly found it most
convenient to let their slaves find their own jobs and while
collecting a flat fee from the slave for the time spent away
from the master.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">This new set of
arrangements fundamentally altered the relation between slaves
and their masters -€” not to mention among the slaves
themselves. For long stretches of time, the slaves got out
from under the direct supervision of their masters, and slaves
could make cash for themselves above and beyond the fees they
paid their masters. Many African Americans could even afford
to live outside their masters'€™ households. Slaves could
marry and cohabit independently. By the first decades of the
19th century, Charleston had a Black suburb, populated mostly
by slaves alongside some freedmen.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The South'€™s
white population, both in town and country, lived in constant
fear of insurrection. In the countryside, however, Blacks were
under constant surveillance, and there were few opportunities
within the grueling work regime for slaves to develop wide
social connections. The dramatically freer circumstances in
the cities meant that the state had to step in to do the job
of repression that the slavemasters had usually taken care of
themselves.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The Charleston
Guard and Watch developed by trial and error into a
recognizably modern city-run police force by the 1820s,
performing both day-to-day harassment of the Black population
and staying on call for rapid mobilization to control crowds.
It received a big push toward professionalization in 1822 when
plans for a coordinated slave insurrection were discovered.
They crushed the insurrection, and then they bulked up the
force.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The Southern
force was more militarized than in the North, even before
professionalization. Mounted police were the exception in the
North, but they were the rule in the South. And Southern
police carried guns, with bayonets.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The specific
history of police forces varied in all American cities, but
since they were facing similar problems in repressing urban
workers and the poor, they all tended to converge on similar
institutional solutions. The Southern experience also
reinforces the point that was already clear in the North:
Anti-Black racism was built into American police work from the
very first day.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">* * * * *</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Toward the end,
I'€™ll say a few words about Philadelphia, but before that,
I'€™m going to draw out some themes that apply to all of
these cases.</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">First of all, we
need to put policing in the context of a bigger ruling-class
project of managing and shaping the working class. I said at
the beginning that the emergence of workers'€™ revolt
coincided with a breakdown of old methods of constant personal
supervision of the workforce. The state stepped in to provide
supervision. The cops were part of that effort, but in the
North, the state also expanded its programs of poor relief and
public schooling.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Police work was
integrated with the system of poor relief, as constables
worked on registration of the poor and their placement in
workhouses. That'€™s even before the police were
professionalized -€” the constables were sorting out the
'€œdeserving poor'€ from the '€œundeserving poor.'€ If
people were unemployed and unable to work, constables would
direct them toward charity from churches or the city itself.
But if folks were able to work, they were judged to be
'€œidlers'€ and sent off to the horrors of the workhouse.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The system for
poor relief made a crucial contribution to the creation of the
market for wage labor. The key function of the relief system
was to make unemployment so unpleasant and humiliating that
people were willing to take ordinary jobs at very low wages
just to avoid unemployment. By punishing the poorest people,
capitalism creates a low baseline for the wage scale and pulls
the whole scale downward.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The police no
longer play such a direct role in selecting people for relief,
but they do deliver a good deal of the punishment. As we know,
lots of police work has to do with making life unpleasant for
unemployed people on the street.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The rise of
modern policing also coincides with the rise of public
education. Public schools accustom children to the discipline
of the capitalist workplace, including the submission to
strict rules about the proper time to do things. The school
reform movement of the 1830s and 40s also aimed to shape the
students'€™ moral character. The effect of this was supposed
to be that students would willingly submit to authority, that
they would be able to work hard, exercise self-control, and
delay gratification.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">In fact, the
concepts of good citizenship that came out of school reform
movement were perfectly aligned with the concepts of
criminology that were being invented to categorize people on
the street. The police were to focus not just on crime but on
criminal types -€” a method of profiling backed up by
supposedly scientific credentials. The '€œjuvenile
delinquent,'€ for example, is a concept that is common to
schooling and policing -€” and has helped to link the two
activities in practice.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">This ideology of
good citizenship was supposed to have a big effect inside the
heads of students, encouraging them to think that the problems
in society come from the actions of '€œbad guys.'€ A key
objective of schooling, according to reformer Horace Mann,
should be to implant a certain kind of conscience in the
students'€”so that they discipline their<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em style="FONT-SIZE:
12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT:
0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px;
OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-STYLE: italic;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">own</em><span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>behavior and begin to
police<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
FONT-STYLE: italic; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">themselves</em>.
In Mann'€™s words, the objective was for children to '€œthink
of duty rather than of the policeman.'€</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Needless to say,
an analytic scheme for dividing society between good guys and
bad guys is perfect for identifying scapegoats, especially
racial ones. Such a moralistic scheme was (and is) also a
direct competitor to a class-conscious worldview, which
identifies society'€™s basic antagonism as the conflict
between exploiters and exploited. Police activity thus goes
beyond simple repression - €”it '€œteaches'€ an ideology of
good and bad citizenship that dovetails with the lessons of
the classroom and the workhouse.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The overall
point here is that the invention of the police was part of a
broader expansion of state activity to gain control over the
day-to-day behavior of the working class. Schooling, poor
relief and police work all aimed to shape workers to become
useful to -€” and loyal to -€” the capitalist class.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">* * * * *</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The next general
point is about something we all know, and that'€™s this:</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">There is the law
- and then there'€™s what cops do</strong>.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">First, a few
words about the law: Despite what you may have learned in
civics class, the law is not the framework in which society
operates. The law is a product of the way society operates,
but it doesn'€™t tell you how things really work. The law is
also not a framework for the way that society<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em style="FONT-SIZE:
12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT:
0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px;
OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-STYLE: italic;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">should</em><span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>operate, even though
some people hold out that hope.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The law is
really just one tool among others, in the hands of those who
are empowered to use it, to affect the course of events.
Corporations are empowered to use this tool because they can
hire expensive lawyers. Politicians, prosecutors and the
police are also empowered to use the law.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Now,
specifically about cops and the law. The law has many more
provisions than they actually use, so their enforcement is
always selective. That means that they are<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em style="FONT-SIZE:
12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT:
0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px;
OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-STYLE: italic;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">always</em><span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>profiling what part of
the population to target and choosing which kinds of behavior
they want to change. It also means that cops have a permanent
opportunity for corruption. If they have discretion over who
gets picked up for a crime, they can demand a reward for not
picking somebody up.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Another way to
see the gap between the law and what cops do is to examine the
common idea that punishment begins after conviction in a
court. The thing is, anybody who'€™s dealt with the cops will
tell you that punishment begins the moment they lay hands on
you. They can arrest you and put you in jail -€” and never
file charges. That'€™s punishment, and they know it. That'€™s
not to mention the physical abuse you might get, or the ways
they can mess with you even they don'€™t arrest you.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">So the cops
order people around every day without a court order, and they
punish people every day without a court judgment. Obviously,
then, some of the key social functions of the police are not
written into the law. They'€™re part of police culture that
cops learn from each other with encouragement and direction
from their commanders.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">This brings us
back to a theme that I started with at the very beginning. The
law deals with crimes, and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
FONT-STYLE: italic; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">individuals</em><span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>are charged with
crimes. But the police were really invented to deal with what
workers and the poor had become in their<em style="FONT-SIZE:
12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT:
0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px;
OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-STYLE: italic;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">collective</em><span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>expressions: Cops deal
with crowds, neighborhoods, targeted parts of the population -
€”all collective entities.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">They may<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em style="FONT-SIZE:
12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT:
0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px;
OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-STYLE: italic;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">use</em><span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>the law as they do
this, but their broad directives come to them as policy from
their commanders or from their own instincts as experienced
cops. The policy directives frequently have a collective
nature -€” say, to gain control of an unruly neighborhood.
They decide to do that, and then they figure out what laws to
use.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">That'€™s the
meaning of '€œzero tolerance'€ policies, '€œbroken windows'€
policies -€” policies that, in the past, might have been
frankly termed '€œuppity nigger'€ policies. The aim is to
intimidate and assert control over a mass of people by acting
on a few. Such tactics have been built into police work from
the very beginning. The law is a tool to use on individuals,
but the real goal is to control the behavior of the larger
mass.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">* * * * *</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">I'€™ll use my
last few minutes to talk about some alternatives.</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">One of them is a
justice system that existed in the United States before the
rise of the police. It'€™s well documented for Philadelphia,
so that'€™s the place I'€™ll discuss. Colonial Philadelphia
developed a system called the minor courts in which most
criminal prosecutions took place. The mayor and the aldermen
served as the judges - €”the magistrates. Poor people would
save up money so they could pay a fee to the magistrate to
hear a case.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Then, as now,
most crime was committed by poor people against poor people.
In these courts, the victim of assault, theft, or defamation
would act as prosecutor. A constable might get involved in
order to bring in the accused, but that'€™s not the same thing
as a cop making an arrest. The whole action was driven by the
victim'€™s desires, not the state'€™s objectives. The accused
could also counter-sue.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">There were no
lawyers involved on either side, so the only expense was the
fee to the magistrate. The system wasn'€™t perfect, because
the judge might be corrupt, and the life of the poor didn'€™t
stop being miserable when they won a case. But the system was
quite popular and continued operating for some time even after
a system of modern police and state prosecutors developed in
parallel.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The rise of the
police, which came along with the rise of the prosecutors,
meant that the state was putting its thumb on the scales of
justice. In court, you might hope to be treated as innocent
until proven guilty. Before you get to court, though, you have
to pass through the hands of the cops and prosecutors who
certainly don'€™t treat you like you'€™re innocent. They have
a chance to pressure you or torture you into a confession -€”
or nowadays a confession in the form of a plea bargain -€”
before you ever get court.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">However unfair
the system came to be as it was dominated by cops and
prosecutors, the minor courts had shown Philadelphians that an
alternative was possible that looked a lot more like dispute
resolution among equals.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">That'€™s the key
-€” we can make an alternative available again if we abolish
the unequal social relations that that police were invented to
defend. When the workers of Paris took over the city for two
months in 1871, they established a government under the old
name of the Commune. The beginnings of social equality in
Paris undercut the need for repression and allowed the
Communards to experiment with abolishing the police as a
separate state force, apart from the citizenry. People would
elect their own officers of public safety, accountable to the
electors and subject to immediate recall.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">This never
became a settled routine because the city was under siege from
day one, but the Communards had the right idea. In order to
overcome a regime of police repression, the crucial work was
to live up to the name of the Commune -€” that is, to build a
self-governing community of equals. That'€™s still pretty much
what<em style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
FONT-STYLE: italic; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"> we</em><span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>need to do.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">* * * * *</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Some sources.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">On law and order
in the European Middle Ages:</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Tigar, Michael.<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em style="FONT-SIZE:
12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT:
0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px;
OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-STYLE: italic;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Law and the Rise of Capitalism</em>. New
York: Monthly Review Press, 2000.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">On the working
class and the police in England:</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Thompson, E. P.<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em style="FONT-SIZE:
12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT:
0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px;
OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-STYLE: italic;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The Making of the English Working Class</em>.
Vintage, 1966.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Farrell, Audrey.<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em style="FONT-SIZE:
12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT:
0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px;
OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-STYLE: italic;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Crime, Class and Corruption</em>.
Bookmarks, 1995.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">For some history
in the US and insight into the functions of the police:</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Williams,
Kristian.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
FONT-STYLE: italic; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Our Enemies in
Blue: Police and Power in America</em>. Revised Edition.
South End Press, 2007.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Silberman,
Charles E.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
FONT-STYLE: italic; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Criminal
Violence, Criminal Justice</em>. First Edition. New York:
Vintage, 1980.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The key source on
the evolution of the police in the major cities of the US:</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Bacon, Selden
Daskam.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
FONT-STYLE: italic; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The Early
Development of American Municipal Police: A Study of the
Evolution of Formal Controls in a Changing Society.</em><span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Two volumes.
University Microfilms, 1939.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Specific sources
on New York, Philadelphia and the South:</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Gilje, Paul A.<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em style="FONT-SIZE:
12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT:
0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px;
OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-STYLE: italic;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The Road to Mobocracy: Popular Disorder
in New York City, 1763-1834.<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></em>The University
of North Carolina Press, 1987.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Steinberg,
Allen.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
FONT-STYLE: italic; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">The
Transformation of Criminal Justice: Philadelphia, 1800-1880.</em>1st
edition. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press,
1989.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Wade, Richard C.<span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em style="FONT-SIZE:
12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY: inherit; BORDER-RIGHT:
0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px;
OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-STYLE: italic;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR: invert;
PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Slavery in the Cities: The South
1820-€“1860.</em><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Oxford
University Press, 1964.</p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px"><strong
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px;
PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">On the early
years of public schooling in the US:</strong></p>
<p style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px;
MARGIN: 0px 0px 1.5em; BORDER-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-COLOR:
invert; LINE-HEIGHT: 1.6; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Bowles, Samuel,
and Herbert Gintis.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><em
style="FONT-SIZE: 12px; BORDER-TOP: 0px; FONT-FAMILY:
inherit; BORDER-RIGHT: 0px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline;
BORDER-BOTTOM: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px;
FONT-STYLE: italic; PADDING-TOP: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none;
PADDING-LEFT: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; BORDER-LEFT: 0px;
OUTLINE-COLOR: invert; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px">Schooling In
Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the
Contradictions of Economic Life.</em><span
class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Reprint. Haymarket
Books, 2011.</p>
</div>
<div>Audio available at: </div>
<div><a moz-do-not-send="true"
href="http://uslaboragainstwar.org/Article/36242/the-origins-of-the-police">http://uslaboragainstwar.org/Article/36242/the-origins-of-the-police</a></div>
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