[Peace-discuss] Chomsky on natural law
C. G. Estabrook
galliher at illinois.edu
Fri Dec 11 21:04:07 CST 2009
"...we're talking about the move from 'is' to 'ought'. We will discover what we
can about the nature of the world and, among the truths about it, I believe, we
will find that part of our genetic capacity, which evolved over millennia, is
that certain moral principles are inscribed in it; probably genetically
determined. To try to discover them is, of course, a big task. There's some
empirical work on the subject. But their existence doesn't seem to me
questionable. For reasons, actually, explained by Hume. David Hume was pretty
clear about this. He pointed out that we have an almost infinite number of
responsibilities and duties; meaning, we know how to behave properly in entirely
new situations. And that can be the case only if there are certain principles
inscribed in us which come from the original hand of nature -- from our genetic
endowment we would say -- that somehow guide our choices and decisions. I think
that's not at all implausible, and I cannot think of a coherent alternative that
would permit a degree of adaptability to what appears to us as a wide variety of
practices..."
From Noam Chomsky interviewed by Bedeutung Magazine, December 2009
<http://chomsky.info/interviews/200912--.htm>:
Alex Stavrakas: Every society creates its institutions based on needs, values
and ideas that are fictitious -- as being based on arbitrary truths. The idea
itself, however, that these institutions are a human creation does not exist in
every society. Societies, for example, may rely on an external authority in
order to legitimize their truths: Gods, gospels, etc. The question is: if
American people were fully aware that they themselves are the creators of their
own laws, would they respect them?
NC: First of all, the majority of American people today don't accept the
assumption that it is they who create their institutions and who run their
country. The last time I looked at the polls, about 80% of the population felt
that the government is made up of a few big interests looking out for themselves
and not for the people. You could see this at the elections. Although I don't
have the exact figures at hand, there's a very striking fact: opinions of
Congress are extremely low -- in the teens. Nevertheless, probably 98% of
incumbents get re-elected. What this tells you is that, essentially, people are
aware that they don't have a choice and that they're not taking part in running
the country. In fact, you can see this in many other ways: take April 15th, the
day when taxes are paid. In a democratic society, where people would feel that
they are shaping their own lives, this would be a day of celebration. The spirit
would be "We're getting together as a community to put our resources into
implementing policies that we have chosen". What could be better than that?
Well, that's not the way it is here. Instead, it's a day of mourning when some
alien force which has nothing to do with us comes to steal our hard-earned money.
AS: In this sense, then, the institutions to which they refer in order to
identify themselves politically, socially ...
NC: ... are not their institutions. In fact, that's why virtually all
institutions are held in very low repute. Congress, corporations, just name it.
AS: Would you say that, in this sense, the fears of Tocqueville when he spoke of
democratic despotism as a state of becoming so politically apathetic and
conformist that one lacks even the desire to resist ...
NC: ... I don't think 'apathetic' is the right word, I'm also not sure
'conformist' is the right word. People feel hopeless. Take the Obama campaign in
2008. Campaigns in the US are run by the Public Relations industry and elections
are, basically, bought. The Obama campaign is a case in point. In fact, as you
may know, the advertising industry gives an award each year for the best
marketing effort of the year. Last year, they gave it to Obama, whose campaign
beat Apple Computer in 'Best Marketing of the Year'.
There was really very little talk about issues. Real political issues were off
in the side somewhere and, to start with, most people didn't even know what they
were. The words that were being repeated over and over again, in typical
advertising campaign style, were 'hope' and 'change'. Well, that's meaningless.
But it does work, the advertisers understand popular moods. The people wanted
'hope' and 'change' which means that they didn't have hope and they didn't like
what existed. Now, that's not apathy, it's a mark of a kind of disintegration of
society. I'm old enough to have lived through a real depression, the Great
Depression, as a child -- but I remember it. My family were mostly working
people, not well-off by any means. But, in a way, it was a less psychologically
depressed time. There was a sense of hopefulness; the sense that there is a way
out of this, that there are possibilities, things that can be done, like
organise the CIO (Committee for Industrial Organisation), get involved in
programmes of reform, opportunities to be grasped. There is no such general
feeling in the country now -- but it's not apathy. I think what it is, is the
success of an incredible propaganda campaign, the scale of which is very little
understood although there's good scholarship on it: after the Second World War,
there was an enormous campaign by the business classes to drive out of people's
heads any conception of democracy, concern for one another, government, feeling
able to do anything and so on. And it had its successes.
AS: In an interview you said that, faithful to a community decision, you would
stop at a red light at 3 am, while knowing that you could go through it without
being caught. You have, also, said that "power doesn't imply justice or even
correctness, so that the state may define something as civil disobedience and
may be wrong in doing so", invoking the example of de-railing a train that
carries ammunition to Vietnam as an act that overrides the rule of law in the
name of a higher moral imperative. Is this not, in principle, the same logic
that led and justified the use of torture as an interrogation method by the US?
NC: It is, yes, the same principle. But, one could say that when Hitler threw
Jews into extermination camps it's the same principle as when Gandhi carried out
the Salt March. What I mean to say is that these comparisons don't mean anything.
AS: We seem to be inhabiting a world where political, economic and social
phenomena are driven by themselves, governed by a logic that implies -- when it
does not explicitly state -- that things are just because they are and it cannot
be any other way but how it is. In other words, Capitalism's subjectivity has
produced a new kind of objectivity which, having no manifesto, manages to elude
criticism. What are your views on this?
NC: That's a concocted image; its basis in reality is extremely slight. First of
all, do we have Capitalism? Do we live in a market society? People who write
these things, write them on computers and send them by the internet. Where did
computers and the internet come from? They came mostly from the kind of place
where I am sitting right now: research institutions that in these days were
largely funded by the Pentagon. These products (computers, email) are, for the
most part, the result of a very dynamic and creative state sector of the
economy. Is this Capitalism? Computers and the internet were in the state sector
for decades before they were handed over to private enterprises for profit.
That's not unusual -- in fact, that's how most of the economy works. It's an
economy in which one of the leading principles is that the public pays the costs
and takes the risks whereas the profit is privatised. We're seeing this in such
a striking way today that it cannot even be concealed. It's the so-called 'too
big to fail' principle, by which the Government is bailing out the financial
markets that crashed when they tried -- to an extent -- to live up to market
principles, leading, as it always happens in such cases, to disaster. Only now
they are being bailed out, because they're 'too big to fail'. This means that
they're basically public utilities, except with private profit. So, if they get
in trouble, the public bails them out. To begin with, then, it's only a partial
market system, a limited form of State capitalism. And can it not change? Of
course it can change. Just because Margaret Thatcher says "There is no
alternative" it doesn't mean we should pay any attention to her. It can change
in many ways.
But let's be concrete. Something rather surreal is happening right now, which
gives a lot of insight into the American form of State capitalism. The Obama
administration is partially dismantling the core of the industrial economy: the
automotive industry, steel industry, heavy industry and so on. And that, also,
means destroying communities, destroying lives, destroying 'hope' -- quite a
long range of consequences. At the very same time, Obama's Secretary of
Transportation is travelling around Europe to try to use federal stimulus money
(taxpayer money) to get Spain and Germany (maybe other countries too) to provide
the United States with infrastructure, technology and equipment for high-speed
rail transport, which we desperately need. Why is that happening? Why aren't the
American industries and their skilled workforce being reconstructed to produce
what the country needs? It certainly isn't impossible; there were much sharper
changes instigated by government initiatives during the Second World War.
Semi-command economy is highly successful economically; more so than anything in
economic history. So, why isn't it happening now? The reason is that it doesn't
lead to enough profit on Wall Street.
Is there an alternative? Sure there is. The industries themselves could be taken
over by their stakeholders, workforce and community, and converted to produce
what's needed by the society and to produce it with enough profit to satisfy
this workforce and community -- if not Wall Street. That's an alternative. But
it has to be in people's minds before it begins to be implemented -- and these
notions of popular democracy (which is what that would be) have been driven out
of people's minds.
AS: You've argued that opportunity confers responsibility. In a sense, you are
speaking of a proportional distribution of responsibility. Can you imagine a
society in which questions about proportional and absolute responsibility,
justice, equality would disappear or be resolved -- or do you consider such
scenarios (like Marx's Higher Communism) to be mystifying ideas causing, in the
end, worse alienations than they try to avoid?
NC: There is no society (except for cases like Spanish Anarchism) that ever
tried to implement anything remotely like the ideas of Marx to which you are
referring. This certainly includes from its first moment the Soviet Union, which
was very anti-Socialist I should say. To the extent that privilege is
distributed, opportunity will be distributed and then responsibility will too.
Its not a matter of 0% or 100% but one's position on this spectrum.
AS: Can we go back to Obama's campaign and its buzzwords. It seems like our most
advertised values sound vague, if not downright fraudulent: 'safety' and the
preservation of 'our way of life'. Yet, at the same time, the constantly
repeated dictum of political campaigns such as Obama's ('change') is an equally
unqualified proclamation. How do you understand the co-existence of these
opposing imperatives? What do you think of a political and cultural discourse
that seems to propose progress -- and urgently so at times -- yet functions only
to strengthen the existing economical, political and cultural status?
NC: Both rhetorics are, in my opinion, vacuous. And the preservation of
privilege and power should be but a cliché. We haven't gotten far beyond what
Adam Smith described when, discussing England, he pointed out that the principal
architects of policy in England -- namely the merchants and manufacturers --
made sure that their own interests were most peculiarly attended to, however
grievous the effect on others, including the people of England (but more so the
victims of the so-called savage injustice of the Europeans, referring primarily
to India in this case) were. Institutions have changed, a lot has changed since
Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations. In essence, however, what he said remains a
pretty good approximation to one of the leading operating principles of policy
formation. Now, there is a category of people called 'intellectuals' one of
whose major task is to suppress all of this, usually in lofty rhetoric, and make
it seem as if something obscure and profound is involved. I think it's pretty
straightforward.
AS: In our liberal societies we affirm, theoretically at least, the equal rights
of all cultures whilst knowing that there are cases of regimes that constantly,
systematically and massively violate the principles that we consider as
constitutive of a human society. Should we consider these events as some
interesting ethnological peculiarities, or do we have a duty to take a stance --
academically and politically -- including the use of force?
NC: It's quite often useful to adopt a principle that is frequently voiced but
rarely applied: look in the mirror. Let's look at ourselves first; for the
reasons that are brought up repeatedly in the Gospels, for instance. American
society was founded as what George Washington called "an infant empire" that was
willing to create its territory by what the founding fathers themselves
recognised to be extermination (their words). That's one of the original sins of
this society and the effects continue to linger. The other is slavery. Lets take
a look at slavery, then. We know what slavery was and what its horrors were.
After the Civil War it was technically supposed to have ended. However, if you
look at the facts, after about twenty years it began to be re-instituted
directly in the South -- and with the complicity of the North. What was
instituted was, literally, a criminalisation of black life through laws such as
'vagrancy' or 'talking too loud'. This was devised as a means to throw much of
the black male population into prison, where they would stay permanently through
various other machinations and from which they created the basis of a good part
of the modern industrial society: mines, steel mills, cotton and so on. In fact,
if you look at the details, it was worse than slavery. Under slavery, the
slave-owner owns the slave as capital and so he takes care of him. But in this
system there was no sense of responsibility; it was quite horrendous. This
continued until the Second World War. During WWII, when labour was needed
(industrial labour), there was a kind of opening for black males that lasted
through the following several decades during which there was a very rapid and
highly egalitarian growth, the so-called 'Golden Age' of Capitalism. Now, in the
1970s, the financialisation of the economy began and this window of opportunity
was closed. Since about 1980, the incarceration rate has shot way up, reaching
higher levels than in any other industrial society. I think England is second,
far behind the US, and others are even farther behind. This phenomenon has no
relation to crime, and it concerns, to a substantial extent, black males. That's
reinstituting slavery; prison slavery, in fact, since these inmates work as
prison labour. So, if you look at the whole history, from the beginning of the
slave trade until today, slavery has barely ended. Sure enough, it's taken
somewhat different forms, it's not as rigorous today as it was after
Reconstruction -- but it's there and it has tremendous effect on the society.
Well, is that a property that meets the condition that you described? Should we
invade ourselves by force to overcome it? And that's not the only example.
AS: On the same theme of the United States and its relation to the rest of the
world, what are your views on China and Russia? They may be able to live in a
peaceful coexistence with the U.S., but they will never accept American tutelage
and the assumption that they can be conscripted into service in a campaign to
convert the world to American-style democracy is, to say the least, unfounded.
NC: There's a presupposition in the question which I cannot accept. Do we want
to convert the world to a world in which 80% of the population think that their
government is run by a few big interests looking after themselves? A world in
which citizens regard themselves as helpless to influence governmental policies?
Do we want a world -- to take a case in point -- where 85% of the population
believe that their government should adopt the policies of every other
government and negotiate drug prices to cut them down from their exorbitant
level and their government doesn't even put it on the agenda, doesn't even
discuss it? Is that the kind of world we want to convert people to? People talk
about the model of American democracy and the American way of life, but they do
it in abstraction from reality. It actually reminds me of what was written by a
leading figure and one of the founders of the realist school of international
affairs, Hans Morgenthau. He once wrote an interesting book which had a lot of
truth in it -- more than he thought, I think. The book was called 'The Purpose
of American Politics'. In this book, he claims that the United States is unique
in the world and has a transcendent purpose, unlike any other country. This
transcendent purpose is to bring about freedom. But Morgenthau, being a good
scholar and going through history, observed that we have not lived up to this
transcendent purpose. Case after case, this purpose has, in fact, been radically
violated. But, he said, we should think of what actually happened as just the
'abusive' history. The 'real' history is how what happened is reflected in our
minds. He then went on to point out -- correctly -- that (he wasn't being ironic
unfortunately) to deny historical reality on the basis of the abusive history --
namely, what happened -- is like the error of atheism that questions the
magnificence of God in the same way. Unfortunately, he was not trying to write a
satire. He was describing actual intellectual life -- except describing it
honestly. Well, that's the story. I cannot accept the presupposition of the
question so therefore I cannot respond to it. It's like asking me 'Have you
stopped beating your wife?'. Russia and China have enormous problems; maybe much
worse than ours. But I don't think we're the ones to teach them lessons. We can
start by teaching ourselves some lessons.
AS: In your answer you put rhetorically the question 'Do we want to convert the
world?'. So, taking, say, the second Gulf War, were there traces of this
extravagant idea of exporting freedom and democracy in the minds of the American
government and, more importantly, the American people?
NC: Well, here's an example of the amazing achievements of intellectual servants
of power: to have even made that a conceivable question. We know what happened.
When the United States went to war it had war aims. They were stated by Bush, by
Blair, Powel, Rice, and others. The war aims were what Bush and Blair called 'a
single question': will Sadam Hussein give up his WMD? The American people went
to war because -- and we know this from polls -- they thought they were in
danger. I forget the numbers, but America was the only country in the world that
was actually frightened by Sadam Hussein. Everybody hated him, but this was the
country where people were afraid of him. Condoleezza Rice famously said that the
next time we hear of him it will be a mushroom cloud over New York. So, that's
why people went to war and that's what Bush and Blair, who toddled along behind
them, gave as the single question. Of course, there was the usual blither played
about democracy; but that was in the background, like it always is. They didn't
find weapons of mass destruction. So, they needed a new pretext for having gone
to war. All of a sudden, then, it turned out that the reason for war was our
love of democracy. I think it was November 2003 when, long after they had failed
to find WMD, George Bush put up a great fanfare and gave a speech in which he
said that our noble effort was to bring democracy. Everybody immediately jumped
on the bandwagon and fell in. This is an example of servility to power that
would be shocking in a totalitarian state; even more so in a democratic society,
where you have the facts in front of you.
AS: What about the 'symbolic', if you like, dimension of 9/11? There have been
those, like DeLillo, who advocated that the attacks on 9/11 were not targeted
against the West, but specifically against America. On the other hand, there's
been countries, like France, who insisted they were attacked together with the
United States -- Nous Sommes Tous Des Americaines, Le Monde headlined.
NC: Any serious specialist, whether its Michael Scheuer, the chief CIA analyst
who was following Sadam Hussein, or academic specialists and others, knows
perfectly well that the 9/11 attacks were directed against United States policy.
Of course it was an attack on the West, since the West supports US policy -- US
policy in the Middle East, that is. You may say that it was a monstrous
terrorist attack and claim that they were mistaken about American policy, but
there is very little doubt that people who follow seriously Al-Qaeda say "They
mean what they say". And what they say to us is: "You're attacking Islam and we
are going to defend ourselves". Incidentally, that's another good example of
propaganda. What I'm going to say is almost unintelligible in the West, but let
me say it anyway. 9/11 was a horrible atrocity. But it could have been worse;
let me give you an example. Suppose that Al-Qaeda had bombed the White House,
killed the President, established a military dictatorship, tortured several
hundred thousand people, set up a major international terrorist centre that was
overthrowing governments and killing people all over the world, brought in a
bunch of crazed economists who drove economy into its worst recession in
decades. Suppose that had happened. Wouldn't that be a lot worse than September
11th, 2001? Well, it did happen: on September 11th, 1973 -- the only thing I did
was change the numbers to per capita equivalents, which is a proper measure.
This is what happened on what is sometimes called 'the first 9/11' in South
America: the overthrow of the government of Chile, backed by the United States.
Why wasn't that an atrocity? Why didn't that change the world? In terms of the
societal effects, its much greater than what we call 9/11. But that was our
terror, our violence, so it doesn't count. And that's only one of innumerable
examples. We have to learn to look at ourselves if we want to talk seriously
about the world.
AS: Europe has been compared to Hamlet and the US to Fortinbras, the implication
being that Europe is a doubter and brooder that fails to act, whereas the US,
not tainted by the 'pallor of thought', acts forcefully and swiftly convinced
that perhaps not the law, but certainly the law of the strongest will be on its
side. Do you see any accuracy in this claim?
NC: I definitely think that that's the case for Europe and the United States. In
fact, it may be one of the few principles of history that has real substance. It
was said very well by Thucidides: 'the strong do what they want and the weak
suffer as they must'. Surely, that's European history, overwhelmingly. And
Europe tags along with the US in this regard.
AS: One other thing that is different between the US and Europe is the place
religion has. In fact, judged by almost any standard, the US is a less secular
country than Turkey. In no other highly industrialized country is there
widespread belief in Satan or an official movement contesting Darwinian theory.
In 2002, a poll in America revealed that a quarter of Americans believed that
the events of 9/11 were predicted in the Bible. Where should we look for the
origins of this phenomenon and what tools does it provide for the understanding
of American society?
NC: It's a very important question -- and, definitely, too complex for me to
answer it briefly. To begin with, we should look back to the early colonists who
came from England. They came from a providentialist culture, namely, a culture
immersed in the conception that providence has laid out a plan for history and
we are carrying out God's will. For example, when the first colonists came to
New England in the 1629s and King Charles II gave the Charter to the
Massachusetts Bay Colony, this Charter said something along the lines of "The
purpose for this plantation is to save the natives from their Pagan misery".
When John Winthrop gave his famous sermon in which he said that "We are the city
on the hill", he was using the framework of what is now called 'the
responsibility to protect' or 'humanitarian intervention', the notion that we
are coming to save you. In fact, the great seal of the colony of Massachusetts
has on it a picture of an Indian with a scroll coming out of his mouth saying
"Come over and help us". So, this is a perfect example of humanitarian
intervention in the name of the Lord. And that runs through a good part of
American history. It's a long stream of providentialism that has never ended and
which has repeated revivals, like in the 1950s. So, in a word, yes, it's a deep
feature of the culture and it goes way back to the origins. What influences us
on policy, however, is debatable, since we're also a very secular society.
Freedom is, actually, guaranteed to an extent that is probably unique in the
world -- except in England maybe. But, still, there's nothing in the United
States comparable to Britain's outrageous libel laws. That would be
inconceivable here.
AS: Let's extend this idea of belief further. Religion, for example, answers to
universal human needs and only a credulous philosopher would believe that
showing religion is an illusion would make it disappear. In this sense, your
work also attempts to reveal the illusions, hypocrisies, frauds that reside in
the way our modern world works. Does this really have any emancipatory potential?
NC: I'm in the mainstream of science. In this respect, as far as I can say, what
we try to do is find the truth as best as we can, knowing that there are all
kind of limits, cognitive limits, limits of understanding. But we keep trying to
find the truth about the world and part of this truth is what you just said.
Many people -- in fact, probably, a large majority -- find it a significant
personal value to be part of a religious community. That's also true of people
who have no religious beliefs at all. A great many of the people who are part of
religious communities, are part of them because that gives them a sense of
community, a structure to their lives -- holidays in which you meet your family
and the like. Rituals bring up memories and so on and so forth. That can, also,
coincide with no faith at all; in fact, I know this from my own background. But
for many it does involve irrational faith. I'm not in a position to go to a
grieving mother who believes that some days she'll see her dying child again and
give her lectures on epistemology.
AS: But you have spoken about human nature. Not only that, but you have ascribed
a certain normative function to it, a morality, universals.
NC: I don't see how that's even debatable.
AS: Well, Darwinism taken to its conceptual end takes us safely to the
conclusion that life is ruled by chance and necessity and that there are just
regularities, not prescriptions for good life.
NC: Here we're talking about the move from 'is' to 'ought'. We will discover
what we can about the nature of the world and, among the truths about it, I
believe, we will find that part of our genetic capacity, which evolved over
millennia, is that certain moral principles are inscribed in it; probably
genetically determined. To try to discover them is, of course, a big task.
There's some empirical work on the subject. But their existence doesn't seem to
me questionable. For reasons, actually, explained by Hume. David Hume was pretty
clear about this. He pointed out that we have an almost infinite number of
responsibilities and duties; meaning, we know how to behave properly in entirely
new situations. And that can be the case only if there are certain principles
inscribed in us which come from the original hand of nature -- from our genetic
endowment we would say -- that somehow guide our choices and decisions. I think
that's not at all implausible, and I cannot think of a coherent alternative that
would permit a degree of adaptability to what appears to us as a wide variety of
practices. It might not appear like a wide variety to some Martian looking at us
from a different perspective. In that respect, it's a bit like language. From
our perspective as humans, it looks as if language is arbitrarily varied. On the
other hand, as soon as you learn anything about languages, you discover that
they are pretty narrowly constrained. What applies to language will be true in
the inquiry about tomorrow's systems; if it can ever become sufficiently advanced.
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